Nutritional values and health benefits of dromedary camel ...

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• Camel meat products are receiving increased interest on a worldwide scale due to its high functional properties and nutritive values.

• Camel meat products contain many essential nutrients, and some components with potential bioactive properties that could be beneficial for human health and wellbeing.

• The health remunerations of camel meat products are a promising future perspective that can be used as a tool to enhance the value of functional meat.

• Similar to other red meat products, enrichment of camel meat with health-promoting substances are not a new approach, but it can be recommended for human consumption.

Introduction

The opinion of meat consumers has altered over recent decades from considering meat products simply as a source of essential nutrients to consider meat as a health-promoting supplement (Kadim et al., ). Therefore, substantial changes in the global meat products&#; market occur with increasing demand for high nutritional values and healthy meat products (Kadim et al., ). Health benefits are the main factor influencing consumer demand for any meat products available in the market. A result of interest from the preference shift of consumers is that the functional properties of camel meat products might be considered as an alternative health food. In this respect, a remarkable effort in the meat industry has been directed towards enhancing nutritional values and healthiness of meat products (Decker and Park, ). According to Al-Abri and Faye () and Bouhaddaoui et al. (), hot environments harmfully affect animals causing heat-stress effects on health, but camels have adapted to produce healthy meat even in the hottest and least favorable environmental conditions. Kadim et al. () stated that opportunities exist to improve the nutritional and potential health features of camel meat products, natural production, or addition of natural functional substances. The function properties of camel meat products may be increased by healthy adding ingredients (Pogorzelska-Nowicka et al., ). Camel meat is believed by Somali and Indian people to have remedial effects for different health disorders as hyperacidity, hypertension, or pneumonia (Kurtu, ). Applying the advance technology can improve nutritional and health benefits of camel meat products and development of new products. Recently, consumers are interested, and may pay more for meat products supplemented with bioactive compounds. Marketing the high-quality parameters and nutritive values of camel meat products are a promising future perspective that may be implemented to enhance the value of functional camel meat. This article aims to identify the important nutritional and potential health components and focus on future developments of nutritional aspects of camel meat.

Nutrient Contents

An outline of the nutritional characteristics of camel meat is provided in with an indication of why they are important for human nutrition and comments on special aspects with respect to the meat from camels. Details on individual nutrients are provided in subsequent sections. Information on the proximate composition of camel meat and other meats in illustrates that, except for fat content, camel meat composition is generally similar to meat from other meat-producing mammals such as cattle, sheep, and deer. Moisture contents in camel meat widely varied (63.0% to 77.7%) with higher values generally being associated with lower fat percentages. Kadim et al. () stated that with age, the moisture contents of the camel meat decreased. Ibrahim et al. () reported that small difference in moisture contents between 3&#;4- and 6&#;7-year-old camels across different muscles, while Gheisari et al. () found no such difference in moisture contents between camel meat and meat from other species of similar gender and age. The protein content of camel meat ranges from 17.1% to 22.1% ( ), with meat from young camels containing similar protein percentages to those found in young cattle, goat, and lamb meats (Kadim et al., ). Some other factors may also affect the fat content of camel meat within similar age groups (Kadim et al. , , a, b).

Table 1.

Nutritional characteristicImportance for human diets and presence in meatComments regarding camel meatProtein concentrationProteins are an essential requirement of the human diet, with meat being an important source for many people.Protein concentrations are slightly higher in camel meat than for many other meats due to lower fat levels (see Tables 2&#; 4).The amino-acid balance within proteins and as free amino acids.The balance of the 12 essential amino acids in meat is close to estimated requirements for humans.A similar balance of amino acids is found in camel meat to that of meat from other mammals (see Table 4).Digestibility and bioavailabilitya of proteins and amino acids.Proteins must be digestible and absorbable to be useful. Generally, proteins are high digestible for most meat proteins when cooked with care.Highly digestible proteins as in other meats (see Section 5).Bioactivityb of proteins or their breakdown products.There is increasing evidence that certain short-chain polypeptides from meat proteins have bioactive properties.Limited research is available, in particular with proteins of camel meat (see Section 5).Lipid (fat) concentrationSome lipid components are essential for humans, but fat is mainly a source of energy. Some lipids are undesirable nutritionally.Concentrations are generally low in camel meats (see ).Fatty-acid proportions in lipidSome fatty acids in meat are beneficial (e.g., long-chain-n3), while some are undesirable for humans (e.g., certain saturated FAs and some trans fats).The balance of fatty acids in camel meat is generally good but is dependent on camel diets and levels of fatness (see Table 3).MineralsMany minerals are essential for humans with meat being an important source of several key minerals including iron and zinc. Potentially harmful minerals are usually absent.Similar trend is found in camel meat to other red meats (see Table 5).Bioavailability of individual minerals.Important minerals such as iron in meat are more bioavailable than for the same minerals in many other foods.Expected to mirror the case for other red meats.Water-soluble vitaminsRequired components of human diets, with meat being an important source, especially for vitamin B12. A poor source of vitamin C.Similar to other red meats based on limited data (see Table 6).Fat-soluble vitaminsAlso required in the human diet, with levels depending to some extent on fat levels in the meat.Will tend to be at lower levels due to low concentrations of lipid (see Table 6).Other compounds with possible bioactive propertiesA developing area with examples of compounds being evaluated in meat including coenzyme, taurine, lipoic acid, carnitine, carnosine, creatine, growth factors, etc.Limited information is available, but expected to be similar to other red meats.Open in a separate window

Table 2.

No of animals/SpeciesMuscleMoistureProteinFatAshReferencesDromedaryLT73.819.0 6.2 0.85IS73.218.2 5.3 096TB77.717.1 1.9 1.00ST75.418.5 3.1 0.91 Kadim et al. () SM63.022.1 2.5 0.93BF74.320.8 2.5 1. LamaLT73.923.1 0.5 2.40 Cristofanelli et al. () 40 AlpacaLT73.623.3 0.5 2. GuanacoLT73.920.9 1.0 1.10 Gonzalez et al. () 6 BeefLD70.920.0 5.7 0.98 Moreira et al. () 17 BeefBF72.221.1 6.1 0.96Purchase al. ()Open in a separate window

Nutritional Values

Camel meat products contain high nutritional value, micronutrients important for human health, and essential omega-3 polyunsaturated fats (Kadim et al., , Kadim et al., ; Ibrahim et al., ) ( ). Although, camel meat products significantly tend to have low fat content (Williams et al., ), the nutritional values will vary depending on breed, feeding regimen, age, season, and meat cut. Researchers reported that camel meat products contained relatively low fat content with high unsaturated fatty acids (UFAs) and low cholesterol levels, and is rich in protein and many essential vitamins and minerals (Kadim et al., ).

Vitamin Profile

Due to low fat content of camel meat, fat-soluble vitamins as vit A, are in low quantity compared to other species. Raiymbek et al. () reported that camel meat contained 9.97&#;10.5 μg/100 g vit A. Vit E possesses antioxidant ability to break the chain reactions of free radical formation (Pearce and Jacob, ) and react against oxidation of the plasma lipoproteins and PUFA components of cell membranes (Horba et al., ). Deficiency of vit D may cause cardiovascular disease, type 1 diabetes, cancer, hypertension, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune conditions, and Parkinson&#;s disease. Human daily required is around 10&#;20 µg/day (400&#;800 IU/day) assuming little or no exposure to sun, while it is shown that the actual intake is usually only about 3&#;7 µg/day (120&#;280 IU/day). Consumption of sufficient amounts of B-group vitamins is essential for proper functioning of human body and particularly important are folate (B9) and vitamin B12 (Kadim et al., ). The B-vitamin complex in camel meat products is varied in quantities from a few micrograms to several milligrams per 100 g ( ). The range of vit B1 in camel meat from 0.08 to 0.0 mg/100 g determined in camel muscles ( ). The thiamin levels in camel muscle products (0.09 mg/100 g) were higher than beef (0.5 mg/100 g) lamb (0.06 mg/100 g), rabbit (0.05 mg/100 g), chicken (0.04 mg/100 g), and Turkey meats (0.02 mg/100 g) (Lombardi-Boccia et al (). Meat is usually contributed 77% of the vit B12 in the diet (Karmas, ). Fifty grams of camel meat product contain 2.38g/100 g vit B12, that represent 118% of the human RDA for vitamin B12. The average camel meat contained 4.75μg/100 g vit B12, which provides ample amounts of this vitamin. The camel meat had higher vit B12 than sheep (0.25 mg/100 g) and veal meats (0.18 mg/100 g). Vit B6 is related to protein content of the diet. It is also necessary for the formation of hemoglobin (Henderson et al, ). The vit B6 concentration in camel ranged from 0.61 to 0.67 mg/100 g which are higher than 0.35 to 0.49 mg/100 g for pork meat, turkey meat (0.42 mg/100 g), chicken meat (0.53 mg/100 g), and fish (0.34 mg/100 g) (Sauberlich et al, ). An average serving of camel meat (200 g) provides 80% of the RDA for vit B6 for the young adult male. Pantothenic acid plays a key role in energy metabolism. The range values of pantothenic acid in camel muscles were 0.82&#;0.89 mg/100 g. Riboflavin is necessary for normal growth and helps maintain the integrity of mucous membranes, skin, eyes, and nervous system (Henderson et al, ). Riboflavin is found in red meat and 15% of the average daily intake in human is derived from meat and meat products.

Table 6.

Vitamin1SpeciesMuscleB1B2B3B5B6B12ADEDromedaryLT0.110.230.780.594..50.85 IIbrahim et al. () ST0.080.220.760.614..20.92SM0.090.260.720.614..10.86BF0.090.260.770.624.699.990.83BeefBF0.050.103.490.390.271.699.380.150.45Purchas et al. ()LambLT0.100.165.130.500.151.854.690.040.29Open in a separate window

Conclusion

The amino acid and mineral contents of camel meat are often higher than other meat animals, probably due to lower intramuscular fat levels. According to the nutritional values of camel meat, it can be successfully marketed alongside other livestock. Camel meat is low in fat and cholesterol in comparison to other red meat products, which makes it a preferred choice of meat for health-conscious consumers. With the increasing demand for high-protein and low-fat meat products, camel meat will be a suitable product for international markets. Camel meat quality as well as shelf life can be improved by using various pretreatments such as the use of polyphenolics, curing, aging, and packaging. Future research is needed for exploiting the potential of the camel as a source of meat through multidisplinary research into efficient production systems, improved meat technology, and in marketing. It is important to encourage the consumption of camel meat and to devise a national plan to raise awareness among the public due to its nutritional values and uses at a time when the demand for healthy food is greater than ever.

Notes

About the Authors

Isam T. Kadim is a professor in the Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences at University of Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman. He obtained his Ph.D. from Massey University, New Zealand. He has more than 40 years of teaching and research experience at four different international institutes. He has supervised many M.Sc. and Ph.D. students; published more than 120 refereed papers, four books, and 17 book chapters; and presented 85 papers at scientific conferences. Muscle biology is a major focus of his research and publications. He has obtained more than US$1.4 million funding for his research projects.

Issa Al-Amri is an Associate Professor at the Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, and Dean of College of Arts and Sciences at the University of Nizwa, Oman. He received his BSc in Biomedical Sciences form Glasgow Caledonian University, MSc in Biological Electron Microscopy form the University of Wales, Aberystwyth, and PhD in Biological Sciences from the University of Portsmouth in the UK. Dr. Al-Amri worked at the Department of Pathology, College of Medicine & Health Sciences, Sultan Qaboos University at the capacity of Director of Diagnostic Electron Microscopy Unit for more than 24 years before joining the University of Nizwa in . He published more than 110 articles in international peer-reviewed journals and conferences. Dr. Al-Amri experience and research interests includes histopathology, stress physiology, reproductive biology and endocrinology, biotechnology, nanotechnology, electron microscopy and microanalyses.

Abdulaziz Y. AlKindi is a Professor of Physiology at the Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, Vice Chancellor of Academic Affairs and the Secretary General of the Boards of Trustees at the University of Nizwa, Oman. He received his BSc and MSc from the University of Arizona, USA and his PhD from the University of Exeter in the UK. Prof. AlKindi worked as an Associate Professor at the Department of Biology and Dean of College of Science at Sultan Qaboos University between and . He published more than 90 articles in international peer-reviewed journals and conferences. Prof. AlKindi main research interests focused on stress and reproductive physiology and endocrinology.

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Q.M. Imranul Haq is currently working as an Associate Professor in the Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, at University of Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman. He was awarded Ph.D. in Biotechnology in from Jamia Millia Islamia, New Delhi, India (research work carried out at IARI, New Delhi). He has 10 years of teaching and 16 years of research experience in the field of Biotechnlogy, Microbiology (Plant Molecular Virology) and Molecular Biology. He has post-doc from The Catholic University of Korea (South Korea), ICGEB (India), and Visiting Research Scientist at University of Arizona (USA). He has published several research papers in different peer-reviewed journals.

Contributor Information

Isam T Kadim, Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Nizwa, PO Box 33, PC 616, Birkat Al-Mouz, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman.

Issa S Al-Amri, Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Nizwa, PO Box 33, PC 616, Birkat Al-Mouz, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman.

Abdulaziz Y Alkindi, Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Nizwa, PO Box 33, PC 616, Birkat Al-Mouz, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman.

Quazi M I Haq, Department of Biological Sciences and Chemistry, College of Arts and Sciences, University of Nizwa, PO Box 33, PC 616, Birkat Al-Mouz, Nizwa, Sultanate of Oman.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Aging

Aging is a complex process that improves various quality attributes of meat over time that depend on physicochemical parameters, rate of acidification, changes in osmotic pressure, and proteolytic and glycolytic enzymes. An aging period of 7 days at 2&#;3 °C was reported to significantly improve camel meat quality [12, 46]. Increased drip loss and reduced water-holding capacity due to a decrease in the sarcomere length on day 5 and day 7 were reported [79]. Different studies illustrated that aging enhances the muscles&#; tenderness [77]. Increased tenderness during aging has been attributed to post-mortem decrease in pH and proteolytic processes and increased myofibrillar fragmentation index [12].

Low-temperature storage

Low-temperature storage has been widely used for reducing the growth of spoilage and pathogenic bacteria/microbes in meat. A decrease in temperature reduces the rate of reaction resulting in a decrease in the metabolic activities of cells. Storage at refrigeration temperature (4 °C) reduced the growth of spoilage-causing microorganisms, E. coli O157:H7 and Salmonella spp., and increased the shelf life of ground camel meat [9, 10]. Increased protein extractability, solubility, TCA-soluble peptides, and drip loss during storage suggest proteolysis and degradation of structural proteins (Fig. 2) during refrigerated storage of camel meat [52]. This observation was complemented by the SDS-PAGE pattern [80] depicting noticeable degradation of myosin heavy chain, C-protein, alpha-actinin, as well as tropomyosin bands on day 9 of storage. Camel meat has been reported as more tender than beef after an aging period of 7 days and attributed it to higher protease activity as indicated by the degradation of Z-line and production of 30 kDa fragments (a degradation product of troponin T) [80]. The authors reported that in beef, the 30-kDa component was absent up to 3 days of storage and then started to appear. The appearance of a 30-kDa band at 3 days of storage in camel meat also implied that this meat had a higher degree of proteolysis [80]. An increase in lipid oxidation as indicated by an increase in the peroxide value (PV) and thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) during storage of camel meat has been reported [52, 57]. Camel meat was found to be brighter (higher b* value), tenderer, and more stable to oxidative damage (lesser formation of thiobarbituric acid) than beef during aging periods of 72 and 168 h [36]. A significant interaction effect of aging with the breed as well as the type of muscle on various quality parameters of camel meat has been reported affecting quality especially camel meat tenderness [12]. The authors also reported that aging had no adverse effects on sensory analysis parameters such as colour, flavour, tenderness, juiciness, and acceptability values. A significant decrease in enzyme catalase and glutathione peroxidase enzyme during refrigerated storage of camel meat for 4 days was reported [40]. Also, the peroxide value and TBARS values were reported to increase in camel meat. A significant decrease in the heme content and a corresponding decrease in the b value of camel meat during a 9-day refrigerated storage of camel meat was reported [52]. Reza Gheisari et al. [2] reported a decrease in water-holding capacity, while drip loss and acid value increased during the frozen storage of camel and cattle meat. However, there was no difference between the studied parameters of camel and cattle meat at the end of storage.

Fig. 2

Proteolysis in the camel meat proteins as determined by sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE) (Source: Maqsood et al. [52] with reprinted permission from Elsevier)

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Changes in the protein pattern of camel meat packed under three different packaging systems during 14 days of refrigerated storage were studied by Maqsood et al. [81] (Fig. 3). The detectable protein bands in fresh camel meat were myosin heavy chain (200 kDa), C-protein, actinin, tropomyosin, actin (44 KDa), a-tropomyosin, b-tropomyosin, troponin T (32 KDa), troponin C (30 KDa), and myosin light chain (16&#;25 KDa). During the storage in different packaging conditions at refrigerated temperature for 14 days, different proteins in the camel meat underwent degradation to different degrees as depicted in Fig. 3. Myosin heavy chain, C-protein, alpha-actinin, as well as tropomyosin bands showed a noticeable degradation on day 14 of storage in case of wrapped sample and a mild degradation in air-packaged samples. The degradation of different protein bands in wrapped and air-packed camel meat was mainly due to enzymatic degradation of proteins caused by the bacterial load. Thus, a huge lacuna exists pertaining to the storage of camel meat using novel methods of meat storage.

Fig. 3

Protein degradation as analyzed by SDS-PAGE in camel meat as influenced by different packaging conditions. M, marker; F, fresh samples; V, vacuum-packed samples; Air, air-packed samples; W, wrapped samples; SDS-PAGE, sodium dodecyl sulfate-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (Source: Maqsood et al. [81] with reprinted permission from Elsevier)

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Effect of pretreatments

Different pretreatments have been reported to improve meat quality characteristics by reducing the microbial load, lipid peroxidation, shear value, and improving colour retention in meats.

Addition of plant extracts containing various bioactive compounds have been used to improve the shelf life of food products [82]. Djamel et al. [83] reported addition of Olea europaea subsp. laperrinei improved the shelf life of fresh camel meat by reducing lipid peroxidation with highest score for sensory acceptability by sensory panelists. Polyphenolic compounds due to their antioxidant potential have been extensively used for mitigating lipid peroxidation in camel meat. Maqsood et al. [84] reported better quality retention in the camel meat with a significant decrease in psychotropic and mesophilic bacterial counts in camel meat by the intervention of phenolic compounds especially tannic acid and catechins than gallic acid and caffeic acid (Fig. 4). Gheisari et al. [40] used garlic in biceps femoris muscles of camel and reported a significant decrease in lipid oxidation parameters such as peroxide value and TBA values over a storage period of 14 days. Fresh garlic was reported to impart antioxidant and antimicrobial effects at 40g/kg in camel meat. Shahbazi et al. [85] also reported that essential oil from Mentha spicata at concentrations of 0.5% and 1% improved preservation of camel meat without developing any unfavourable organoleptic properties. Incorporation of ginger improved the physicochemical and sensory properties of camel burgers [86]. The authors reported a significant increase in various sensory parameters such as tenderness, juiciness, flavour, appearance, and overall acceptability. Incorporation of gingerol resulted in a significant decrease in the total plate count, total psychrophilic counts, total enterobacteriaceae count, number of coliforms, and total mold counts as well as various biogenic amines in a dose-dependent manner in camel muscle and offal (kidney, rumen, lungs) [87]. Biogenic amines such as tyramine, putrescine, and cadaverine are spoilage indicators [88] that measure the level of hygiene related to meat and meat products [89]. A synergistic effect in reducing the microbial load was reported when gingerol was used in combination with nisin. The authors reported that 2.5% concentration of each nisin and gingerol decreased the level of cadaverine, tyramine, and spermidine to below-detectable levels. Furthermore, addition of chitosan in combination with citrox was reported to significantly improve various sensory parameters such as colour, odour, flavour, taste, as well as overall acceptability measured using a hedonic scale [90].

Fig. 4

Effect of different phenolic compounds on (a) mesophilic bacterial count (MBC) and (b) psychrophilic bacterial count (PBC) in camel meat during 9 days of refrigerated storage. Bars represent the standard deviation (n = 9). Different letters on the bar within the same storage time denote the significant differences (P < 0.05). Key: CON: samples without any treatment; TA: tannic acid-treated samples; CT: catechin-treated samples; CA: caffeic acid-treated samples; GA: gallic acid-treated samples (Source: Maqsood et al. [84] with Reprinted permission from Elsevier)

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Curing is one of the widely used pretreatments in meat [51] that involves the application of nitrates and nitrites. Curing salts help in the retention of colour, improvement of taste, and retard microbial growth. Curing resulted in lesser susceptibility of camel meat towards lipid oxidation by preventing a decrease in the glutathione peroxidase levels [91]. Fallah et al. [92] reported that irradiation of fresh camel meat at 1.5 and 3.0 kGy accompanied by refrigeration storage-enhanced product shelf life by 15 and 21 days without any significant detrimental effects on its sensory acceptability accessed by sensory panelists, respectively. Improvement in the shelf life of camel meat by 6 weeks using various irradiation doses of 0&#;6 kGy was also previously reported [93]. Irradiation did not cause any significant changes in the chemical composition or lipid oxidation of camel meat and can be an important method for improving the shelf life of camel meat by limiting the growth of various pathogenic and spoilage bacteria. Electrically stimulated camel meat at 90 V and 14 Hz was reported to have lower ultimate pH and shear force values as well as higher expressed juice and myofibrillar fragmentation [94, 95]. Al-Sheddy et al. [50] treated fresh camel meat with different organic acids and reported that sodium acetate alone or in combination with bifidobacteria maintained pH level and extended microbial shelf life (> 12 days). Furthermore, the sensory analysis of the treated fresh camel meat samples showed better retention of surface colour with reduced off-odour development in comparison with untreated samples during storage. The use of salts such as NaCl and KCl have been reported as an effective strategy for improving the oxidative stability of camel meat due to its effects on catalase and glutathione peroxidase [40]. The use of calcium chloride infusions (250 mM injected at a rate of 5%) was reported to reduce the share value of camel meat [96] which is attributed to activation of calpains by Ca2+ resulting in myofibrillar solubilization thereby improving the textural properties of camel meat. Evidently, various pretreatments as well as curing significantly enhance various quality as well as sensory parameters of camel meat and its products.

Effect of packaging and processing

Very limited literature is available regarding novel packaging methods as an intervention for improving shelf life of camel meat. Maqsood et al. [81] studied the effect of different packaging material on the quality of camel meat. Vacuum packaging was identified as a viable means for preventing protein degradation, lipid oxidation, and limiting microbial growth in comparison with camel meat samples packaged in cling wrap. Vacuum-packaged samples showed better colour retention as indicated by higher redness (a) values that was attributed to better retention of heme in vacuum-packaged samples. Sensory analysis also revealed higher results for overall acceptability and odour of vacuum-packaged samples. Active packaging films based on nanomontmorillonite-chitosan and nanomontmorillonite-carboxymethyl cellulose loaded with different concentrations of Ziziphora clinopodioides essential oil were reported to enhance the overall quality of minced meat samples. The active-packaged samples were reported to have reduced TBARS and peroxide values as well as received higher scores by sensory panellists for odour, colour, and overall acceptability [56]. Djenane et al. [83] reported that synergistic use of various biopreservation techniques such as refrigeration, modified atmospheric packaging along with the use of nisin improved the shelf life without any adverse effects on the sensory attributes of camel meat.

Fermentation is a natural processing technique used for enhancing the nutritional and nutraceutical content and shelf life of different meat types depending upon the starter culture used [97]. Various strains such as Lactobacillus sakei, Staphylococcus xylosus, and S. carnosus have been safely used in meat products [98, 99]. Competitive exclusion and production of inhibitors such as nisin limit growth of spoilage and pathogenic microorganism. There is an increase in the shelf life of minced camel meat products using various lactic acid bacteria cultures isolated from naturally fermented foodstuffs [8]. The improvement in shelf life was attributed to the antibacterial effect of selected cultures. Camel meat sausages were fermented with Lactobacillus casei and L. paracasi and evaluated for various quality characteristics after 0.10,20,30,40, and 45 days of storage [11]. The authors reported that sausages fermentated with L. paracasei had superior physicochemical, microbial, and sensory characteristic. Enhanced flavour, texture, and overall acceptability of sausages was attributed to various catabolic products generated from carbohydrates, lipids, and proteins by microbial starter culture, while lactic acid produced by the lactic bacteria was reported to promote the colour. The generation of more intense flavour components in a fermented sausage (sucuk) in which beef was replaced with camel meat was also reported [7]. Furthermore, the hydrolytic enzymes from microbes generate bioactive peptides that are known to impart various health benefits [100]. Ayyash et al. [101] studied the effect of fermentation using Lactococcus lactis KX on bioactivities of fermented beef and camel sausages. Camel sausage showed significantly lower lipid oxidation indicated by significantly lower TBARS values in camel sausages. Furthermore, ACE inhibiting potential, antidiabetic potential and antioxidant activity of fermented camel were superior in sausage containing camel fermented meat. Fermentation is associated with reduction of biogenic amines that are potentially unsafe nitrogenous compounds generated from decarboxylation of some amino acids [102]. Camel meat sausage containing a mixed starter culture of L. sakei, S. xylosus, and S. carnosus were reported to have significantly lesser concentration of biogenic amines [98].

Among different processing methods, microwaving, roasting, and braising, the highest cook loss and share value were seen in microwaved samples. Several changes such as disarrangement of sarcomere units, shortage of sarcomere length, and physical disruption in myofibril units in roasted samples were observed [103].

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